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India, despite its vast size, has only a few coral reefs off its mainland coast, mostly concentrated around the Gulf of Kutch to the northwest, and the Gulf of Mannar near Sri Lanka in the southeast. Reefs are highly developed in the more remote archipelagos of Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. The distribution and status of any reefs outside these areas remains largely unknown.
The reefs and coral communities of the Gulf of Kutch are predominantly patchy structures built up on sandstone or other banks or around the small islands on the southern side of the gulf. They have adapted to extreme environmental conditions of high temperatures, fluctuating and high salinities, large tidal ranges and heavy sediment loads. As a result diversity is low, with only 37 hard coral species recorded and no branching species. Coral sand mining was a significant industry in the Gulf of Kutch in the early 1980s and may have added to already difficult conditions. Chronic oil pollution in the area may also be affecting the reefs. There is an oil pipeline right through the national park, parts of which were impacted by a major oil spill in 1999. Industrial pollution is a further concern, and the clearance of mangroves may have increased levels of sedimentation. The impacts of the 1998 coral bleaching were quite varied within this area, but on average were much lower than on reefs to the south, with about 30 percent mortality. Further down the coast there are some small, low diversity communities, but conditions here are quite harsh, with low salinities during the monsoon and high turbidity and wave action. Corals are also reported from the Gaveshani Bank some 100 kilometers off the coast from Mangalore.
The best developed mainland reef structures are located in the southeast, with fringing reefs occurring off Palk Bay, and on the coasts and islands of the Gulf of Mannar, including Adams Bridge, a string of reefs stretching across towards Sri Lanka. Diversity is high in this area, with 117 hard coral species recorded, as well as a number of ecosystems including seagrass and mangrove communities. Unfortunately reefs in this region were recorded as rapidly deteriorating as early as 1971, associated with high levels of siltation and the removal of coral rock combined with cyclone impacts. Coral rubble mining still occurs in the region, and mining of sand from the beaches is ongoing. Fisheries are thought to have a considerable impact, with some 47 fishing villages comprising a total of 50 000 people. Apart from overexploitation of general reef fish stocks there are concerns about other fisheries including sea-fans, sea cucumbers, spiny lobsters, seahorses and shells for mother-of-pearl. About 1 000 marine turtles are taken annually and dugongs are also hunted. The 1998 coral bleaching event appears to have severely impacted the reefs in the Gulf of Mannar, with 60-80 percent mortality.
A large proportion of the reefs in both the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar now fall within legally gazetted protected areas, but these suffer from both weak management and virtually no monitoring. There are concerns that the Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park will be rescinded to allow for industrial development.
The Lakshadweep Islands (Laccadives) are located about 300 kilometers west of the southernmost tip of India. They are true atolls and related reef structures, built up over a volcanic base, marking the northernmost and oldest trace of the Réunion hot spot which went on to form the entire Chagos-Laccadives Ridge. There are 12 coral atolls with about 36 islands (with a total land area of 32 square kilometers), about a third of which are inhabited, and also four major submerged reefs and five major submerged banks. Typically the atolls have shallow lagoons, averaging a depth of 3-5 meters, with islands mostly occurring on the eastern rims. The outer slopes of the atolls descend steeply and have prolific coral growth. The local population on these islands numbers some 51 000, and fishing is an important activity, although largely focussed on offshore (non-reef) stocks. There has been sand mining in some lagoons which is likely to have impacted areas of reef. Tourism is a small but growing activity: access requires a permit and tourist numbers are currently below 1 000 per year. The 1998 El Niño warming event caused dramatic coral bleaching, with significant subsequent coral mortality of 43-87 percent. This is probably slightly lower than that experienced further south in the Chagos-Laccadives chain.
The Andaman and Nicobar group consist of some 500 islands. Many are the high peaks of a submerged mountain range, a continuation of the Arakan mountains of Myanmar. The islands fall into two clear districts: Andaman to the north and Nicobar to the south, separated by the 160 kilometer wide Ten Degree Channel. There are fringing reefs along the coastlines of many of these islands. Their location is far closer to Indonesia and the Southeast Asian center of biodiversity than to India, and species diversity is higher than at any other reefs in India, with some 219 coral species recorded and around 571 species of reef fish. Although only 38 islands are inhabited, the population has been rising rapidly, largely through immigration, especially in the Andaman District. Close to these areas there may now be some human impacts on the reef communities, while sedimentation is expected to increase as further areas are opened up to logging. At the present time, however, many of the reefs are still largely free from human impacts, and pollution generally remains low. Despite access difficulties, tourist numbers are growing, and dive operators are now taking divers to the islands on “live-aboards”, usually departing from Thailand. The reefs were apparently very badly affected by the 1997-98 bleaching, with up to 80 percent mortality reported in some areas. Recent surveys have nonetheless shown an average of 56 percent live coral cover, suggesting a varied impact among the reefs. A detailed network of protected areas has been established in the islands. The majority of these are terrestrial but extend to the coastline, offering at least partial protection to adjacent reef communities.
Geography
Area: 3.3 million sq. km. (1.3 million sq. mi.); about one-third the size of the U.S.
Cities: Capital--New Delhi (pop. 11 million). Other major cities--Mumbai, formerly Bombay (15 million); Calcutta (12 million); Chennai, formerly Madras (6 million); Bangalore (5 million); Hyderabad (5 million); Ahmedabad (3.7 million).
Terrain: Varies from Himalayas to flat river valleys.
Climate: Temperate to subtropical monsoon.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective--Indian(s).
Population (1999 est.): one billion; urban 32%.
Annual growth rate: 1.8%.
Density: 311/sq. km.
Ethnic groups: Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid 2%, others. Religions: Hindu 81.3%, Muslim 12%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, other groups including Buddhist, Jain, Parsi 2.5%.
Languages: Hindi, English, and 16 other official languages.
Education: Years compulsory--9 (to age 14). Literacy--54%. Health: Infant mortality rate--71/1,000. Life expectancy--63 years.
Work force (est.): 416 million. Agriculture--63%; industry and commerce--22%; services and government--11%; transport and communications--4%.
Economy
GDP: $390 billion.
Real growth rate (1998-99): 6.8%.
Per capita GDP: $420.
Natural resources: Coal, iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, chromite, thorium, limestone, barite, titanium ore, diamonds, crude oil.
Agriculture (25% of GDP): Products--wheat, rice, coarse grains, oilseeds, sugar, cotton, jute, tea.
Industry (29% of GDP): Products--textiles, jute, processed food, steel, machinery, transport equipment, cement, aluminum, fertilizers, mining, petroleum, chemicals, computer software.
Trade: Exports--$34 billion: agricultural products, engineering goods, precious stones, cotton apparel and fabrics, handicrafts, tea.
Imports--$42 billion: petroleum, machinery and transport equipment, edible oils, fertilizer, jewelry, iron and steel. Major trade partners--U.S., EU, Russia, Japan, Iraq, Iran, central and eastern Europe.
Profile
Although India occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population. Only China has a larger population. Almost 40% of Indians are younger than 15 years of age. About 70% of the people live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over thousands of years of its history, India has been invaded from the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, Arabia, Afghanistan, and the West; Indian people and culture have absorbed and changed these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis.
Religion, caste, and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. The government has recognized 18 languages as official; Hindi is the most widely spoken.
Although 83% of the people are Hindu, India also is the home of more than 120 million Muslims--one of the world's largest Muslim populations. The population also ../../includes Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, and Parsis.
The caste system reflects Indian occupational and religiously defined hierarchies. Traditionally, there are four broad categories of castes (varnas), including a category of outcastes, earlier called "untouchables" but now commonly referred to as "dalits." Within these broad categories there are thousands of castes and subcastes , whose relative status varies from region to region. Despite economic modernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of the class structure, the caste system remains an important source of social identification for most Hindus and a potent factor in the political life of the country.
History
The people of India have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological changes.
During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures.
The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.
Islam spread across the subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other.
The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers.
The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British Parliament to transfer all political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Great Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.
In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and noncooperation to achieve independence.
On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. Enmity between Hindus and Muslims led the British to partition British India, creating East and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. India became a republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its constitution on January 26, 1950.
After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s.
Prime Minister Nehru governed the nation until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties.
In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar.
In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.
On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.
The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.
In November 1997, the Congress Party again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.
In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999.
Information provided by CIA Worldfactbook, US Department of State, Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN). ReefBase: Oliver, J. and M. Noordeloos. Editors. 2002, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center,
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